This paper focuses on the role of some flint knapping experiments in the understanding of the Neolithic flint manufacturing.

The aims of our flint knapping experiments can be presented as:
- defining the characteristics of morphological features related to applied knapping methods or techniques;
- reconstruction of chain operatoire efficiency or other particular concept used in analysis;
- and finally description of characteristic waste.

In our experiments various factors are being studied. The most obvious is in the use of diverse knapping tools for flint processing, knapping techniques and their application. Various flints are examined a regard to their natural properties for particular tools, knapping quality and abilities to undergo artificial transformations, such as thermo alteration. Furthermore, flint knapping concepts are also reconstructed. We practice the various strategies the knapper applies to overcome flint nodule shape differences or other such obstacles in order to produce a specific tool. Finally, advanced waste studies are being done to characterize waste products which result from the application of different methods and techniques. As a result of our work various flint knapping traditions can be distinguished on non-homogenous archaeological sites. It also helps in comparing particular flint knapping traditions, as well as enabling a detailed description of flint knapping tradition of an analyzed group of people.

The experiments presented here are part of an assessment of Avar-period ceramic found on the site of Zillingtal (Burgenland, East-Austria, 7-8th century AD). On the basis of scientific analyses it has been concluded that the ceramics had been produced from local clays. This applies to both technological groups of the ceramics: coil-built pottery and pottery made on a slow wheel. The following experiments applied to the coil-built ceramics only.

For the experiment 9 clay samples were taken from the surface at the site. A pot of a generic form was made from each sample. Once ready the pots were dried for a week. They were preheated beside the fire for one hour before the firing, which took 1.5 hours. Most breakages took place in the first 15 minutes. 30 minutes after reaching the red heat the vessels were taken out from the fire. This experiment proved that it is possible to produce ceramic vessels from clay local to the site of Zillingtal.

The function of this type of pottery is often discussed. Usually it is doubted that these vessels of relatively bad quality were capable of being heated directly. In the following experiment the two intact pots of the previous experiment were tested for suitability as cooking ware.

When beans were put into the pots to be tested as cooking ware, the water started to leak slowly through the walls. We soaked the beans overnight, then placed the two vessels beside the fire for 20 minutes and afterwards put them into the fire. After about 15 minutes the water started to boil. The beans were cooked after three hours (on an electric oven it took two hours). After cooking the pots did not leak anymore. The surface of the pots became smoother and acquired a kind of glaze. The colour of the vessels also changed.

On the basis of the changes in the colour and surface of the vessels and of the filling of the pores it seems that in principle it is possible to ascertain if a pot from an archaeological context was used for cooking.

The presented paper refers to a record of metallurgical experiments performed in prehistoric and early mediaeval iron furnaces. The experimental iron smelting started in Moravia in the 1970ies. These were initiated as a response to a find of an early medieval furnace from 11th century. Up to now 16 iron smelting centres, dating from the 8 to the 12 centuries, have been uncovered in the Moravian Karst. The excavation has uncovered all sorts of evidence - ore, evidence of ore preparation before smelting, bloom, charcoal, various types of bellows and tools.

It seems that the main parameters determining the furnace operation and the reduction processes are fuel consumption per time and the time of burning out after the end of ore inset. In our opinion an experienced smelter could have recognized the right speed of the process by sight.

Another important factor influencing the process is the roasting of the ore and predrying of the furnace. Both of these operations cause a lowering of energy requirements. The ore also undergoes the first level of reduction and the reducibility of the ore increases dramatically.

Astronomy studies the changes in position, relative to an earthbound observer, of sky bodies which is dependent on time. This allows for chronological localisation of archaeological finds that were astronomically oriented. The sky allowed ancient peoples to orientate in time and space. People observed especially the movements of the Sun and Moon. Such a dependency is presumed for church architecture, religious structures and graves.

We can apply some of the principles to the Slavonic centre at Břeclav - Pohansko where there are with high probability 4 structures with a religious function: a church, an enclosure and two post-built buildings. There is also a large cemetery.

From an analysis of the orientation we can deduce that in Pohansko, not only that Christianity succeeded Paganism, but that also the worship of the winter solstice replaced the worship of the summer solstice, or the other way round. It's necessary to understand that these conclusions are only preliminary, outlining questions for further analysis.

The contribution is a brief interim report on work by 6 students of Archaeology at the University of Nitra. The work is a part of a two year long student project. It intended to test various methods of treating animal skins, as described by E. T. Seton for Canadian Indians, with a view toward the possibility of them having been used in European prehistory -e.g. treating raw skins by mechanical working and conserving by smoking without the use of a chemical agent.

The authors tested most stages in the process: dehairing, defleshing and conservation of hides with the help of a mixture of brain and boiled liver, softening the hides and conservation by smoking. They concentrated on the technological process and tools needed.

During the first part of the experiment errors occurred caused by lack of experience. These should be eliminated during the following work on the project. Nevertheless, despite the necessity to repeat the process as the students underestimated time necessary for conservation the treatment was successful and the following laboratory test showed that the processed hides were usable.

The experiment presented intended to test various ways of working bone and antler in prehistoric and early medieval contexts. Bone is an easily accessible material as it is de facto a by-product of food processing. Toughness and relative ease of working are among its other advantages. In our tests we paid special attention to the processes of softening. The work used the antler of red deer and bones.

At first we prepared rough-outs - e.g. bits of bone of suitable shape, length and width. This was done with breaking splitting, cutting and sawing. Then comes the soaking. The easiest way is softening is a long term soaking in water. The bone can also be buried in the ground. Soaking it in a weak natural acids proved the most efficient method. Bits of antler submerged into a vessel with crushed sorrel leaves soften within a week to a depth of 3 mm and after 6 weeks it was possible to cut the antler like wood. From other means the experimenters used milk and five various acids. From these the best results were achieved with the use of vinegar. The optimal acidity of the environment was about 4 pH. With higher acidity the reaction would cease to be reversible.

Then we finished working the bone/antler by cutting, scraping, drilling and engraving. In the end we decorated the surface of some of the artefacts. During the work we kept the artefacts we were working on in the softening solution. The long bones we had to work in layers with soak of about 24 hours in between each stage. After taking out of the solution and rinsing the samples hardened within 12 hours.

This study deals with the reconstruction of the manufacture of typical vessels of one of the Late Aeneolithic cultures, the so called Bell Beakers. Micropetrographic analysis of micro sections from pottery from polycultural settlements in Olomouc-Slavonín and Mohelnice were used to assess the technological process. With the help of micro-sections we were able to assess especially the following processes: processing of the ceramic mixture, surface finish and character of the firing.

The Moravian Bell Beakers have typically red or black surface finish. These were reached in the following way: After creating the basic shape and decorating the surface with a stamp the surface of the pot was covered with a slip. This slip contained washed clay from the original beaker ceramic mixture with the addition of finely grinded iron minerals (hematite, bloodstone). The pot was dried and then fired in reducing conditions of about 600°C. This was followed by another short term firing in an oxidising environment at about 900°C.

This technological process is documented by the succession of layers on the micro-section: slip - red zone caused by oxidising firing - dark centre from reduction firing - red zone caused by oxidising firing - slip. If the pot was fired only once, in oxidising conditions, the surface would only go a dull orange brick. Beakers with black surface were fired in a semi reducing environment at about 600°C and at the end of the firing the surface was smoked.

This analysis proved that the beakers were of local provenience - the pottery was made from materials gained from the subsoil on the site or in surrounding area. Similar processes were used by the people of the Globular amphorae culture on the settlement in Olomouc-Slavonín.

An original working hypothesis is presented according to which in European prehistory a whorl was used not only for spinning yarn but also as a fire-making devise The hypothesis was inspired by finds of whorls on sites unfavourable for spinning and also in possession of hunters who wore only leather/fur clothes. The spread of finds suggested that the whorl was an important tool of everyday use since the beginning of the Neolithic to the early Middle Ages.

The authors tested this idea with a whorl stuck on a spindle sharpened at both ends. Between the whorl and the spindle they put the end of a thin leather strap. The spindle was placed between two bearings, a 'cold' stone one and 'warm' dry wood one. It is possible to bring the spindle into a fast rotation on a principle similar to a spinning top. Rhythmic pulling of the strap keeps the spindle moving. During the test the authors regularly gained hot embers in about ten seconds.

The authors point out that the archaeological finds don't allow for exact reconstruction of the fire making process and that in various times and regions the shape of fire-sticks and the process could differ.

This article was complemented with the contribution by Jiří Červinka: Poznámky k rozněcování ohně přírodními metodami / Notes to making fire with primitive methods.

This article presents the basic principles of starting fires with a fire-bow, flint and steel, striking mineral and flint, a drill and by rotating in palms. Only a fragment of these methods can be proved archaeologically. The author thinks that during the assessment of concrete finds, in their interpretation and also during preparation of experiments, it is useful to be aware of the possibilities of fire making. The current practical experience with the reconstruction of primitive fire making methods shows that the possibilities are very varied. At the same time we currently don't have anybody who would be able to test the above mentioned methods to such a scale as to be able to use the knowledge for the interpretation of archaeological situations.

This article is restricted to the list of methods either managed by the author himself or those he was able to record personally. Another restriction is the applicability of a method within Central Europe.